Approaches to Personality
Again the nature/nurture issue arises. Some psychologists feel that personality is inherited (genetic-nature) others feel that it is learned (environment-nurture).
Again the debate may be resolved in favor of both. There are many definitions of personality but the one that appears most to the point is that personality is the sum of traits that makes us unique.
Let's look at the definition: sum of traits is an additive term and supports the idea of the many areas the characteristics of personality cover. It covers the individual's unique way of thinking, feeling and behaving. Unique is a term that explains the one nature of personality. No two personalities are exactly alike.
The debate makes the study of personality a challenge.
To resolve the challenge, psychologists emphasize the uniqueness of individuals as well as the commonalities existing across people.
The function of personality theory is three-fold; first it has to organize, describe and explain the phenomena; secondly, it has to guide research and test hypotheses; thirdly, it must identify and apply principles that may be used in therapeutic settings.
The approaches or theories of studying personality are similar to the approaches that you learned earlier, so some of this material is review.
Psychodynamic Approach
Although many different psychodynamic theories exist, they all emphasize unconscious motives and desires, as well as the importance of childhood experiences in shaping personality.
Sigmund Freud believed in two forms of instinctual energy. The life instinct called Eros which accounts for self-preservation behaviors and the Thanatos or death instinct which pushes people to destructive behavior. These Eros and Thanatos energies are the fuel for personality traits.
Freud believed that three interacting systems result in personality.
The first is the id. It is the part of personality that exists from birth. It operates at the unconscious level without direction and operates on the pleasure principal for immediate gratification.
The second is the superego. It is our moral system or conscious that operates on the conscience or unconscious level. It learns to incorporate the morals and values of parents and society.
The last is the ego. It operates on the conscious level and on the reality principle. It balances the demands of the id and superego. The ego uses defense mechanisms or behaviors to balance the demands of the ego and superego and reduce the stress they cause.
The Defense Mechanisms
Here are some examples of defense mechanisms.
- Displacement- You take out anger and frustration on less threatening object. Example: If your parents yell at you, you, in turn, yell at a sibling or kick the dog.
- Projection is pushing unacceptable behaviors on other people. You see your faults in others but not yourself. Example: You highlight aggressive behaviors in other people but not acknowledge your aggression.
- Rationalization is taking your unacceptable behaviors and blaming them on others. Example: If you don't do well on a test, you blame it on the teacher's inability to make a test instead of blaming it on yourself.
- Regression is behaving in a way from an earlier state. Example: If you get angry and frustrated, you throw a temper tantrum like you did when you were three.
- Repression is taking unacceptable and anxiety producing ideas from the conscious level to unconscious level to avoid dealing with them. Example: If a woman has been raped, many times she can't identify her rapist. Though she saw him, the trauma of the event causes her to push the situation from the conscience to unconscious level.
The Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach focuses on each individual's potential and stresses the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency. They tend to have an optimistic perspective on human nature.
They focus on the ability of human beings to think consciously and rationally, to control their biological urges, and to achieve their full potential. In the humanistic view, people are responsible for their lives and actions and have the freedom and will to change their attitudes and behavior.
Sociocognitive Theory
Sociocognitive Theory is a learning theory based on the ideas that people learn by observing others. These learned behaviors can be central to one's personality.
While social psychologists agree that the environment in which one grows up contributes to behavior, the individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as important.
For example, each behavior witnessed can change a person's way of thinking (cognition). Similarly, the environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors, just as a father's mindset (also cognition) will determine the environment in which his children are raised.
There are five core concepts associated with the sociocognitive theory framework.
These core concepts are observational learning/modeling, outcome expectations, self-efficacy, goal setting and self-regulation. It is important to note that learning can occur without a change in behavior.
Trait Theory
The trait perspective of personality is centered on identifying, describing and measuring the specific traits that make up human personality.
By understanding these traits, researchers believe they can better comprehend the differences between individuals. The combination and interaction of various traits forms a personality that is unique to each individual.
In 1936, Gordon Allport categorized these traits into three levels: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.
Cardinal traits dominate an individual's whole life, often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. Consider the origin and meaning of the following descriptive terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissistic, Don Juan, Christ-like, etc. Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.
Central traits are the general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. These traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.
Secondary traits are the traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line.
Uses
Doctors, researchers, and employers use personality assessments for a variety of reasons:
A psychologist might administer personality tests to a patient with a varied set of symptoms to narrow down possible diagnoses. In such a case, a psychologist would typically use a battery of tests in addition to interviewing the patient.
A counselor might administer a personality test in order to help a person choose a career.
A consulting firm might assess job candidates in order to decide which candidates would be likely to perform well under pressure.
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